A. INTRODUCTION
American society in 1960s was still in different treatment between men and women, not only gendered differences but also racism among them, namely black and white. Black people were treated badly as well and they had no right equality among the society. Black women face a lot of unfair treatment. The unfair treatment come from white people called racism, namely they were regarded as the second class in the society. Another unfair treatment came from black men; namely, they were treated badly and were dominated. Therefore, black women became the first victim called dual oppression either from white or black man.
…. A black woman would have it tough to get through because they have two obstacles to overcome, being a woman trying to prove that they can do as good as man, and then trying to prove they can do as (good as) any white person, a white man in particular. So that’s a lot for woman to overcome, I think that’s more stressful than that a black male would have to do, because he is just fighting against racism, as a woman is fighting against racism and sexism
(Nijole, 1995: 146).
For Black women, gendered racism means that those power positions in this situation, usually white men, have two different ways to oppress them. As a matter of fact, the negative images of black women haunted white Americans up to 1960’s. This condition made them think more of the solution on how to overcome their suffering to get their position as equal as others do in the society at least as equal as black men do. “women of colour thus have to struggle against both general and specific forms of racism, sexism, and homophobia found within and outside their own communities” (Gatlin, 1987: 174)
In line with this problem, the movement of feminism was growing well in 1960s. National Organization for Women (NOW) also founded in 1960’s. It is as a starting point for women to overcome the oppression in getting the equal position between men and women. Even women subordination and patriarchal culture were protested by women in several cases such as in getting right in political, educational, and other positions.
The second movement of feminism happened in 1970s. it was started by “ The Feminine Mystique” that was written by Betty Friedan ( Djajanegara, 2000: 9). This work influenced to Americans women’s life. Black American women started thinking of how to get equal right both to black men in particular and white race in general. Moreover, feminism also claimed that “women wanted to be treated well in every condition, place and whenever women stayed alive” (Humm, 2002: 1).
Life in dual oppression needed many struggles and sacrifices to overcome the oppression. Most of black women suffered from facing the oppression. They revolted against dual oppression either overtly or covertly because black women did not have place to share their suffering. Black men also dominated them as the effects of gendered image. They hoped by doing revolt through the struggle and sacrifices, they could stay longer in this world and were treated humanly.
B. DISCUSSION
Feminism
Feminism has an inseparably dual character, involving both theory and practice. Feminism is both a way of thinking about the world and a way or acting in it. Feminism is “a perspective that views gender as one of the most important bases of structure and organization of the social world” (Sapiro:1986). Feminist argue that in most known in societies this structure has granted women lower status and value, more limited access to valuable resources, and less autonomy and opportunity to make choices over their lives than it has granted men. There are three kinds of feminism. They are liberal feminism, socialist feminism and Radical feminism.
Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism is focused on the justice of gender that demands us to make justice role merely equality between male and female. Liberal feminism has been the predominant form found in the United States and, for that matter, in most of best-known feminist movement through out the world.
Liberal feminism insists on the equality between men and women but the equality does not happen in the society. Therefore, they disagree with the shape of women from identity and education in shaping individuals as central in constructing gender differentiation between men and women in attitudes, expectation, and behaviors. By reshaping individual beliefs and values, new socialization process will be created in institutional and non-formal setting.
Contemporary liberal feminism also seeks female equality with men by extending to women’s rights among the society. They advocate social and legal reform through policies designed to get the equal opportunities for women, such as achieving citizen rights, introducing companionate marriages, and ensuring educational chances. In establishing access to economic opportunities and civil rights, social policy is concerned as an important force.
Briefly, liberal feminism emphasizes social and legal reform trough policies and it is designed to create equal opportunities for women (Anderson, 1983:235).In addition, liberal feminism emphasizes the sex differences; thereby assumption that changes in socialization practices and the reeducation of the public will result in more liberated and egalitarian gender relation (Anderson, 1983:235).
Socialist Feminism
A second major branch of feminism is socialist feminism, which developed within the framework of Marxist thought as a critique of liberal reformist views. It also, however, criticizes some of traditional Marxist understanding of “the women question”
Socialist Feminist argue that the liberal framework does not account for the sources and processes of societal oppression and liberation, and therefore, focus on the relationship between the material conditions of societies and the leads feminist focus on the relationship between the material conditions of societies and the social structures and ideologies that flow from them. The socialist framework leads feminists to ask not just whether women have the same opportunities as men within given social institution, but to look more deeply at the structure and relationship of those social institutions themselves.
Radical Feminism
A third branch of feminism is radical feminism. Radical feminists define sexual relations and sexuality as the center of their feminist framework and argue that men are the problem and women are the solution.
The solution radical feminists offer is the rebellion of the colonized against the colonizer; in other words, unity among women against male authority. The task of women is look among themselves to discover their own feelings and interests and their own culture and to refuse to participate in the male order.
The radical feminist view that political institutions as they are generally defined are patriarchal and that “the personal is the political”. Radical feminists often eschew strategies to influence law and policy and instead concentrate on what is sometimes called “witness politics”. The arena for political action is personal life, and changing one’s way of life is, therefore, political activity.
Black American Women
Black American women in 1960s were still in bad condition among the society. Women subordination was embodied in social life in America. Historically they used to be judged as powerless and became the object of oppression by men. Moreover, patriarchal culture colored their lives. Black women in the society also worked in the society also worked outside the home as “slaves; then as poor farmers; then as maid, restaurant and laundry worker, as clerical and sales workers” (Angela, 1999:90). They had to work hard for survival of themselves and their families. They were forced to work hard without appropriate reward.
The ways in which male dominance interacts with racial stratification. Asking whether racism or patriarchy has been the primary source of oppression, psychologist Philomena Essed interviewed black women in the United States and the Netherlands and found racism and sexism constantly interacting in their lives (Nijole, 1995:146).
Black women were also subordinated and exploited in their daily lives. “Black women have been subordinated and exploited in their job outside the home. The freedom to develop personally is sharply limited in the cold reality of daily work”(Nijole, 1995:147).
Oppression that is caused by racist, slavery and sexist can only be stopped by resolution or rules, but sexually violence is difficult to be stopped. It needs a certain basic movement to overcome.
The movement of feminists is gained to empower women and to give the women’s opportunity to get their own rights. This movement inspired black American women to start thinking how to fight against multiples jeopardy. National Association of colored Women’s Clubs was one of “the first national black organizations fighting for civil rights, formed in the middle of 1890s, a decade before the NAACP (the National for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed” (Nijole, 1995:156). Other organizations shape the participation of black women are SNCC (Student Nonviolent Christian Leadership Conference) and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality).
Black women were also central on in the 1960s civil rights movement. They still needed the intervention of black men such as in the leadership position but them also in other sectors of society. Some of Black Women figure are Mae Carol Jemison (the national witnessed the first society such as, astronaut, and Carol Moseley Braun as the first black women in the United State senate), Terry Mc Millan, Tony Morrison, Alice Walker (three popular black women authors). They were admitted on the New York Time best-seller lists. Toni Morrison got a Noble prize in 1993 white Alice Walker got a Pulitzer Prize for her The Color Purple in 1983.
A gleam of home for black women by taking a part in several organizations and being involved in work outside the home, they could contribute much in the development of feminism movement. They hope one of them one of them would be a leader in the national women’s liberation movement because the movement of feminism was still led by a male being. Black women feel dilemma namely who want to try to move into mainstream jobs and culture. They should face themselves with the oppressive group of black men or with the oppressive group of white. Black women have often been left out the national discussion.
The enemy of black women is not only black men. The major enemy is the oppressive racial discrimination namely from black men and from white whether women, men or children. Hence the black women should struggle twice rather than black man in getting the equality right.
The Revolt of Black women against dual oppression
American society in 1960s was still in difference treatment between men and women even between black and white. The different treatment between men and women is called sexism. Sexism happened in patriarchal society. Such society believes that men are superior while women are inferior. Men feel that they have power. They hold balance power in economic, social, politics and other aspects of life. Therefore, women are subordinated. Women subordination brings injustice treatment namely the existence of woman are regarded nothing. Women are only complement of the society. They must do domestic work such as ironing, washing, cooking, and cleaning the hose event taking care of children. Women do not get equal right in education, politics, economics, and so on.
Not only sexism or patriarchal culture happened in America, but also Racism. Racism is the different treatment between black and white. White is the superior class while black is the inferior one. The black are regarded as the second class in the society. They are regarded as they powerless group of the society so that they did not get chance to get equality among the society.
Related to white men, all women were powerless and exploited even black women suffered from dual oppression. They first oppression came from white people that regarded them as the second class of the society while the second one came from black men that treated them badly. “the powerless and exploitation of black women was an extra from of what all women experienced, because racism, although just as pervasive as sexism, was more violent… women suffered from that male violence that followed both racism and sexism”
(http//: www.socialistaction.org/news/200103/double.html)
The white people never admitted the reality that black people also had their ability in doing a business. Black people competed them in business. Some of them were move popular than white. Automatically the white felt that black people mocked them. The white felt they were the only ones who had power among society “the negro is governed by those naturally superior” (Fredickson, 1987:63). Consequently, the black that rejected their role should be ready with consequences because the white did not want to know that the black had power and success in the society “the goal of racist is to keep black people on the bottom” (Woodward and Clark, 1986:101).
The protest of black women can be seen from their daily lives. They protested the unfair treatment by rejecting being maid of white and working in the field the whole day. Asante also stated “ I believe nearly all white men take, and expect to take undue liberties with their colored female servant- not only the fathers, but in many cases the sons also. Those servants who rebels against such familiarity must either leave or expect a mighty hard time if they stay”. The form of protest generally is called by revolt or rebellion. “Rebellion is successful or unsuccessful uprising against an existing set of rules” (Jang & Jang, 1995:548).The reason why rebellion happened was based on class and genuine structural alternatives in political and economic organization. It also consists of slaves, peasants and millenarian seats.
Related to the rebellion, the way to rebel was performed covertly or overtly. Covert revolt is aimed at staying alive to defend the life in the oppression. Covert revolt is aimed at staying alive to defend the life in the oppression. The revolters hope that by keeping silent or hiding her revolt will change her life into better condition. Humm (2002:440) states that silence in feminist theory is rejection to the oppression of patriarchal. It is a type of passive revolt.
Another form of revolt is overt revolt. Overt revolt tends to attack or to fight bravely to the oppressor. It is a frankly action such as living home; hitting the oppressor and so on. Briefly, overt revolt is an offensive action in getting the appropriate right (Santoso, 2002:11). Further, Herkmeister states that “life is a constant fight against decay; civilization a perpetual struggle against dissolution; and virtue itself an incessant strain the clamor of flesh and the devil” (1949:298).
In education era, by 1960s American black women were better off educationally than black males, but still have adequate education. They stay in school really shorter than male. In the college education, they have completed college’s fares better than the male. However, they got many difficulties to get the higher education. Sex and race really combine to discourage American black women from reaching better education and advantaged degree. The demand upon education has been consistent with the American black women’s role as working citizen.
One of the ways of revolt against dual oppression among black women has education. Black women thought that by having a good education, they were able to inspire their mind. They could speak up their idea that was never heard by white people. They could use their knowledge as a tool to rebel the injustice society because “Knowledge is power” (Bacon in Awuy, 2002:28).
Another way of revolt was using the black language among their society. The black language reflected the language of uneducated people. It was the form of the revolt to the white structured language. They used the language, as they knew namely non-standard language. “If you listen to us you will hear that we speak our language, but we understand English. We are distinguished from the rest of the inhabitants because of our color” (Assante, 2003:69).
Since the 1970s, more and more women of color have argued for a reshaping of feminist discussions and organizations to include the women of color. This proved by one of the writers on behalf of black feminism, Sojourney Truth writes her book entitled “Ain’t I a woman”. This book presented data that indicated black women had been speaking and writing on feminism for two centuries. She strongly suggests the black women must go on the fight against sexist and fight against racism.
Black women also got a certain motivation after knowing Martin Lurther King (The leader of Southern Christian Leadership Conference) speech; “I have a Dream” in 1963:
I say to you today, my friends, that in spite of the difficulties and frustrations of the moment I still have a dream. It’s a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its cread : “we hold these truths to be self evident; that all men are created equal, “…. I have a dream today… (Todd, 1972:827).
This Speech also influenced that black women to continue their struggle getting the better life. They still stayed alive although in the difficult position. They started rebelling the bed conditions by taking some actions such us doing lesbianism among black as the protest no good service in sexual intercourse from black men.
Lesbianism in America is regarded as culture “Lesbianism is political act, an act of resistance to patriarchy” (Ferguson, 1991: 133). It is kind of protest to the man who did not serve the woman well in doing sex intercourse. Black women wanted to search their identities by loving another woman. They held that social domination system such a male domination should be fought. It has a common interest to unite and to fight the system. Lesbianism implies that woman can never be mistaken about their existence in the society. They also have right to be respected and to be treated well as human beings.
American black women had played a role in the black’s fight for civil rights. They had an important role in the cause of racial justice and equality. They took a part in several civil rights organization such as NAACP, SNCC, CORE, SDS (Student for a Democratic Society), and SCLC (The Student Christian Leadership Conference).
The form of struggle of black women also separation between the interest of black women and black men. They reached a decisive culmination building. The path breaking works by Toni Cade Bambara, Barbara Christian, Mery Evans, Gloria T, Hull, Ntozake Shange, Angela Davis, Tony Morrison, June Jordan, Alice walker and other black women who broke silence in the 1970s, African American women in the 1980s and 1990s developed a “voice”, self-defined, collective black women’s stand point about woman hood. They were:
“more or less seriously interested in the specific social situation of black women, the history of black women’s literature, the usefulness of feminist solidarity, the evils of race and class oppression, the pressing ills of black and white patriarchal, the plight of the other third world women and the possibilities for the future social change” (Leith, 1989:152)
Black women had to struggle against white racism (including white feminist racism), against economic domination (including black exploitation), and against black and white sexism (including militant black heterosexism). African American endured racism and sexism’s oppressions, which cannot be addressed by a middle class feminist agenda. The black feminist of the Combahee River Collective, in their manifesto of April 1977 declared:
“We are actively committed to struggling against racial, sexual, heterosexual, and class oppression … As black women see black feminism as the logical political movement to combat the manifold and stimultaneous oppression that all women of color face. We struggle together with black men against racism, while also struggle with black men about sexism”. (Leith, 1989:351)
C. CONCLUSION
Black women feel the double burden from racism and sexism. They tried to erase their suffering by doing several actions that is called by revolt. They revolted the unfair treatment between white and black and also men and women as well overtly and covertly. Overtly revolt was aimed at offending the oppressor while covertly revolt was aimed to defending the revolters themselves. The black women struggle to get a better life based on their own abilities. Some of black women reject to be the servant of the white. Some of them tried to free themselves by trying to get a better education because education can change their shape of mind and a chance to get a better position in the society. Some of Black Women inspire to be writers. They took their idea through the works that they write. Some of their works got award as the Pulitzer Prize from the government. They were admitted in the society because of their works. Another ways of revolt against dual oppression, Black women do lesbianism as revolt to black men against sexism.
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___________. The Dual Oppression of Black Women in America . Taken from http//www.socialstaction.org/news/200103/double.html.
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